Section 1. Coping With Islamophobia in Canada
Section 2. Coping With Islamophobia in USA
Section 3. Coping With Islamophobia - Rest of the World
Section 4. Coping With Racism - Non-Muslim and Canada
Section 5. Coping With Racism - Non-Muslim and USA
Section 6. Effects/Impact of Islamophobia on Muslims / Muslim Mental Health - Canada and the USA
Section 7. Muslims and Mental Health Services
Section 1. Coping With Islamophobia in Canada
The Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Students: A Systematic Review of the Literature
Abu Khalaf, Nadin; Woolweaver, Ashley B.; Reynoso Marmolejos, Roslyn; Little, Grace A.; Burnett, Katheryn; Espelage, Dorothy L.( School Psychology Review, v52 n2 p206-223 2023)
Abstract: Despite the rise in anti-Islamic sentiment, Muslim youth’s experiences of religious discrimination are under researched. The goal of this paper is to better understand the complexities associated with religious discrimination for youth and adolescents and how to mitigate the harm caused by these discriminatory experiences. This mixed methods systematic review consists of 44 qualitative and quantitative studies from 34 journals, discussing experiences of religious discrimination for participants ages 4–25 both in the United States and internationally. This review discussed student experiences, the context of school as a conduit for discrimination, how students responded to these instances, including protective factors and recommendations for future research and policy.
Abstract: When it comes to Muslims in the West, nothing is a more sensational visual symbol than the hijab. Due to the current Muslim and non-Muslim fixation on it, scholarly examination of hijab and related issues is necessary. The Muslim Veil in North America examines some of its historical, sociological/anthropological, and theological aspects. This book is dedicated to diasporic Muslim women, although introductory material in various chapters addresses readers unfamiliar with Islam. Undergraduates will appreciate its accessibility in comparison to most academic texts, and it will make the subject comprehensible to lay readers. Unfortunately, this means that the book wavers between being an academic (education, anthropology, and sociology) and a lay read. This is not because the entire book is tailored to different kinds of readers, but because its two parts are rather disjointed. Part 1 addresses a more lay and introductory social science-related reader with basic information; part 2, on the other hand, is a highly specialized examination of exegetical and hadith history.
Experiences of Muslims in Four Western Countries Post—9/11
Carenlee Barkdull, Khadija Khaja, Irene Queiro-Tajalli, Amy Swart, Dianne Cunningham, and Sheila Dennis
Abstract: This qualitative study explored the experiences of 34 Muslim individuals in four Western countries to gain a better understanding of their experiences with prejudice and discrimination following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. An intersectional lens reveals the interlocking nature of identity, oppression, and privilege, and the findings provide insights into what helps affected individuals and communities be resilient in the face of persistent anti-Muslim sentiment. The social work profession is called on to take a leadership role in addressing the stigmatization of Muslims as a social justice issue and to take action to ameliorate its causes and consequences.
Growing Up Muslim: The Impact of Islamophobia on Children in a Canadian Community
Siham Elkassem, Rick Csiernik, Andrew Mantulak, Gina Kayssi, Yasmine Hussain, Kathryn Lambert, Pamela Bailey, Asad Choudhary
Abstract: With the increase of anti-Muslim bigotry in the current political and societal climate, ethnic minority children in western nations may experience increased negative attention fueled by Islamophobia. Islamophobia is defined as the dislike of or prejudice against Islam, and individuals who are Muslims. A literature review yielded little research that examines the experience of Muslim children and their experiences with Islamophobia, particularly in the Canadian context. However, studies on the overall issue reveal Islamophobia is a phenomenon that has impacted Muslims around the world. This community-based study explored the dichotomous experiences of Muslim school-aged children who are taught theirs is a faith of peace and yet who regularly experience microaggressions and overt hostility because of their beliefs.
Muslim Psychiatrists in Training Address Islamophobia in Clinical Experiences
Salam El-Majzoub & Mim Fatmi
Abstract: Islamophobia has increased in the years following the events of September 11, 2001, and has impacted Muslims on a global scale, particularly in the Western world. The far-reaching implications of Islamophobia have affected Muslim clinicians with challenges in their patient-clinician relations. We attempt to highlight some of these challenges and the particularities in the psychiatric setting through clinical cases. We offer recommendations and advice to Muslim psychiatrists and their colleagues on how to approach and address these challenges.
Understanding and addressing Islamophobia through trauma-informed care
Zainab Furqan, Arfeen Malick, Juveria Zaheer and Javeed Sukhera
Abstract: Islamophobia in Canada has individual, societal and structural manifestations, including extreme violence perpetrated toward Muslims. Physical and mental health outcomes and patient experiences of health care settings are affected by Islamophobia. Principles of trauma-informed care can be used to address and mitigate the consequences of Islamophobia in health care settings. Clinicians should reflect on biases and prejudicial views that they may hold toward Muslim people. Based on the clinical context, when appropriate, clinicians should consider exploring the impact of Islamophobia on their patients and supporting them as needed.
Abstract: Previous literature, although helpful in demonstrating the insidious nature and effects of Islamophobia on Muslims, does not underscore the varying forms and intensities of Islamophobia that a diverse range of Muslims in the West face and the powerful ways in which race and socio-economic class factor into their experiences, coping mechanisms, and stigma responses. This dissertation contributes to the literature on Muslims in The West in three ways: (1) offering a qualitative approach to understanding the ways in which Islamophobia is perpetuated through media discourse and coinciding political legislation, and is experienced differently by a diverse range of Muslims in Canada, (2) adding the concepts of spiritual marginalization, spiritual homelessness, and social status optimization to the analytic vocabulary on integration and articulating their relationship with identity, and (3) making a connection between race and social class and the response to Islamophobia and articulating their relationship with human agency. In chapter one, I provide an in-depth literature review on Islamophobia in the West. In chapter two, I present the results of a discourse analysis study that highlights the structural dimensions of Islamophobia through media representations and framing of incidences involving Muslim vs. non-Muslim perpetrators of violence. In chapter three, I present the results of a study that showcases group level experiences of racism amongst a relatively powerless group of Muslim refugee youth in Hamilton Ontario and St. John’s Newfoundland and Labrador. In chapter four, I provide a contrasting response to stigma by reporting on the experiences and mobilization of a socioeconomically privileged group of first, second and third generation Muslims in Edmonton. Finally, I summarize the conceptual findings of each paper, review and discuss the general theoretical and conceptual contributions of the dissertation to existing literature, and provide suggestions on future directions for studying Islamophobia and Muslim integration in The West.
Abstract: As of November 2015, 34 696 Syrian refugees have resettled in Canada (Government of Canada, 2016). Previous studies with refugee populations have found: a) depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder resulting from trauma in their country of origin; and b) problems with discrimination and Islamophobia in new host cultures. Thus, coping strategies have been crucial for refugees to thrive in their new host countries. The current study conducted qualitative interviews with 10 recently arrived Muslim, Arab, Syrian refugees in Windsor, Ontario. The interviews explored participants’ pre- and post-arrival experiences in Syria and Canada. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded using an interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) approach, into themes that emerged from refugees' lived experiences. Themes were organized based on the Transactional Model of Cultural Stress and Coping (Chun, Moos, & Cronkite, 2006). The results revealed superordinate themes that corresponded to each of the panels within the theoretical framework. The superordinate themes included 1) pre-migration stress and trauma; 2) identity assertion; 3) post-migration stressors; 4) religious and collective coping; and 5) positive outcomes and well-being in Canada. Pre-migration stress and trauma entailed fear for safety of family members, discrimination from citizens of neighbouring countries, and financial instability. Through enduring adversity, Syrian refugees asserted cultural and religious identities as well as their gender identities. Post-migration experiences included stressors in the form of acculturative stress, discrimination, financial burden, and survivor’s guilt and loss. To cope, Syrian refugee participants reported the use of religious coping and collective coping strategies to ultimately achieve positive outcomes and hopeful outlooks for their future in Canada. The findings expanded on existing literature on stress and coping, and illuminated the importance of the cultural and religious contexts of Muslim Syrian refugees in Canada.
Abstract: Canada is praised for its multiculturalism and diversity. However, throughout history, minority populations like Black, Indigenous and other People of Colour (BIPOC) have faced disadvantages and discrimination. This Major Research Paper (MRP) delves into the prejudice that Muslim women attending York University face, how it impacts their mental health, and how policymaking can improve the lives of this population. Since immigration policy shifts that began in 1967, the diversity of the Canadian population has increased. While in the 1970s and 1980s, immigrants were primarily Europeans practising Christianity, in recent years, almost half of all immigrants have come from Asia, Africa and the Middle East (Short, 2018). According to the 2011 Statistics Canada report, 387,590 immigrants identified as Muslim in comparison to the 210,680 Muslim individuals who first immigrated in 2000 (Short, 2018). The Canadian National Household Survey (NHS) in 2011 measured the demographics of the Canadian population (Shah, 2019). This survey reported that Muslim Canadians consisted 3.1% of the national population in 2011. The prevalence of Muslim Canadian residents in Ontario is highest (4.6%), followed by Alberta (3.2%) and Quebec (3.1%) (Shah, 2019). According to NHS data, first and secondgeneration Muslim Canadians have higher education levels than Canadians of other religious beliefs (Short, 2018). Nevertheless, Muslims experience greater religious-based, ethnic-based, gendered, and language-based discrimination than others. Muslim women are more prone to religious and gendered-based discrimination than men, particularly while at school and accessing public services (Short, 2018). The NHS survey data highlighted that a quarter of Muslims underwent difficulty when travelling, particularly crossing borders and using airports (Short, 2018). According to Statistics Canada, rates of hate crimes increased by 47% overall, but hate crimes specifically targeting Muslims increased by 151% (National Council of Canadian Muslims, 2018)
How Muslim students endure ambient Islamophobia on campus and in the community: resistance, coping and survival strategies: Recommendations for university administrators, faculty, and staff on how to support Muslim students’ social well-being and academic success
Moussa Magassa
Abstract: ​This study critically explores Muslim students’ experiences on campus and in the community and identifies the opportunities, barriers, and constraints in students’ academic and social relations with peers, university personnel and communities at large. The study provides practical recommendations grounded in evidence for university administrators, faculty, staff and other stakeholders in the areas of service delivery, policy, programs, and educational curriculum development and instruction. The study utilizes a constructivist grounded theory methodology informed by semi-structured interviews of 32 Muslim students in undergraduate and graduate programs as data collection methods. Ambient Islamophobia was uncovered as the central phenomenon. I use a group of theoretical categories, subdivided into properties and dimensions, to illustrate my theory. These theoretical categories are further regrouped into five themes, which illustrate: (1) the ambient and endemic nature of Islamophobia on campus and in the community; (2) the causal conditions of ambient Islamophobia and the processes by which Muslim students become aware and contextualize the complex and multilayered Eurocentric and Orientalist ideologies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors that entrench Islamophobia; (3) the impacts/ consequences of ambient Islamophobia that affect Muslim students cognitively, affectively and behaviorally; (4) the coping and resistance strategies Muslim students develop to counter ambient Islamophobia and achieve social well-being, academic success; and (5) the longing for belonging, while confronting expectations held about Canada and studying at the university. Understanding the processes and foundations of ambient Islamophobia can be used by stakeholders to develop more inclusive policies, programs and classrooms to support the social and academic success of Muslim students on campus.
Securitized Citizens Canadian Muslims’ Experiences of Race Relations and Identity Formation Post–9/11
Baljit Nagra
Abstract: Uninformed and reactionary responses in the years following the events of 9/11 and the ongoing ‘War on Terror’ have greatly affected ideas of citizenship and national belonging. In Securitized Citizens, Baljit Nagra, develops a new critical analysis of the ideas dominant groups and institutions try to impose on young Canadian Muslims and how in turn they contest and reconceptualize these ideas. Nagra conducted fifty in-depth interviews with young Muslim adults in Vancouver and Toronto and her analysis reveals how this group experienced national belonging and exclusion in light of the Muslim ‘other’, how they reconsidered their cultural and religious identity, and what their experiences tell us about contemporary Canadian citizenship. The rich and lively interviews in Securitized Citizens successfully capture the experiences and feelings of well-educated, second-generation, and young Canadian Muslims. Nagra acutely explores how racial discourses in a post–9/11 world have affected questions of race relations, religious identity, nationalism, white privilege, and multiculturalism. In Securitized Citizens, Baljit Nagra, develops a new critical analysis of the ideas dominant groups and institutions try to impose on young Canadian Muslims and how in turn they contest and reconceptualize these ideas.
Abstract: This dissertation examines the inner work of identity formation as it takes shape for minoritized, and often marginalized, Shia Ismaili Muslim adolescents. Through the use of psychoanalytic theory and qualitative research methods, including focus groups and individual interviews, the emotional world of adolescents is analyzed to foreground conflict, difficult feelings and intergenerational memories. Identity markers of faith, culture, race, and citizenship are explored through the psychoanalytic concepts of anxiety, loss, melancholia, guilt, and ideality. My analysis focuses on how social contexts of prejudice and stereotypes relate to inner experiences of isolation, loneliness, and feeling misunderstood. Focusing on the emotional dynamics of faith identity, the dissertation offers an account of the creative and at times defensive processes through which adolescents navigate relationships with teachers, parents, peers, media, and school in a Canadian context that meets, but also fails to meet, their efforts. While highly attuned to the ways Islamophobia operates in public discourse in Canada, the participants have difficulty acknowledging their distress, struggle to find hope and spaces of inclusion, and take on the weighty responsibility to educate others in an effort to reduce the hate projected onto them. The result is a painful split between their faith and their secular selves.
Abstract: The 9/11 attacks in the United States, the subsequent global “war on terror,” and the proliferation of domestic security policies in Western nations have had a profound impact on the lives of young Muslims, whose identities and experiences have been shaped within and against these conditions. The millennial generation of Muslim youth has come of age in these turbulent times, dealing with the aftermath and backlash associated with these events. Under Siege explores the lives of Canadian Muslim youth belonging to the 9/11 generation as they navigate these fraught times of global war and terror. While many studies address contemporary manifestations of Islamophobia and anti-Muslim racism, few have focused on the toll this takes on Muslim communities, especially among younger generations. Based on in-depth interviews with more than 130 young people, youth workers, and community leaders, Jasmin Zine’s ethnographic study unpacks the dynamics of Islamophobia as a system of oppression and examines its impact on Canadian Muslim youth. Covering topics such as citizenship, identity and belonging, securitization, radicalization, campus culture in an age of empire, and subaltern Muslim counterpublics and resistance, Under Siege provides a unique and comprehensive examination of the complex realities of Muslim youth in a post-9/11 world. Twenty years after the 9/11 attacks, Zine reveals how the global war on terror and heightened anti-Muslim racism have affected a generation of Canadians who were socialized into a world where their faith and identity are under siege.
Abstract: Pargament's (1997) religious coping theory was used to examine the methods of coping with stressful interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. The large majority of participants reported experiencing at least one stressful interpersonal event after the 9/11 attacks related to being Muslim; the most common incidents were hearing anti-Muslim comments, undergoing special security checks in airports, facing discriminatory acts, and being verbally harassed. Participants used both religious (i.e., positive religious coping, negative religious coping) and nonreligious (i.e., reaching out, isolation) methods to deal with these stressful interpersonal events. Positive religious coping and reaching out were related to posttraumatic growth; negative religious coping was associated with depression; and isolation was tied to both depression and angry feelings. The large majority of participants did not view the negative interpersonal events they experienced after the 9/11 attacks as a sacred loss, but a significant percentage did consider these events as a desecration. Further, viewing these incidents as a desecration was tied to posttraumatic growth, but this link was partially mediated by positive coping methods.
Abstract: In this exploratory study, eight focus groups were conducted, utilizing 83 participants. A structured, but flexible, interview guided by trauma theory was designed to solicit perspectives on the impact of the September 11, 2001, attacks on the Arab American community in New York City. Participants identified several common areas of concern, including fear of hate crimes, anxiety about the future, threats to their safety, loss of community, isolation, and stigmatization. Barriers to services and current mental health needs were discussed. The results of this study may assist social workers and clinical psychologists in developing targeted mental health initiatives using community outreach strategies. This approach may enhance recovery and healing at the individual and community levels, particularly if services are provided by those who are culturally and linguistically competent and sensitive.
Muslim men and women’s perception of discrimination, hate crimes, and PTSD symptoms post 9/11
Wahiba Abu-Ras, Zulema Suarez
Abstract: This study examined the relationship between race-based stress (racial harassment and discrimination) and PTSD in a sample of 102 New York Muslim men and women post-9/11 while controlling for gender. Bivariate, univariate, and stepwise regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Results of the study show that “feeling less safe” after the events of 9/11 emerged as the only significant predictor of PTSD (F = 10.32; p < .05). Gender discrepancies indicated that men and women differed in symptom expression and reactions. Whereas men were more likely to experience racial harassment, women were more likely to express fear of being in public places. Potential explanations, study limitations and implications are suggested.
Abstract: Over the past 30 years, cultural competence initiatives in mental health have evolved from a list of “dos and don’ts” based on clinician perceptions of a patient’s cultural background to ethnographic approaches that inquire about a patient’s cultural affiliations, conceptions of illness, and preferences for treatment to avoid group-level stereotypes. This chapter first reviews the rationale for cultural competence within mental health as well as cultural competence recommendations for Muslim patients. Next, it discusses the DSM-5 Outline for Cultural Formulation (OCF) and Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI) as clinical assessment tools that can help clinicians ask patients about the cultural definition of the presenting problem; perceptions of cause, context, and support; self-coping and past help-seeking; and current help-seeking and treatment preferences. The OCF and CFI may help clinicians systematically and comprehensively develop diagnostic assessments and treatment plans for Muslim patients in a patient-centered way.
From Interpersonal Violence to Institutionalized Discrimination: Documenting and Assessing the Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim American
Naheed Ahmed, Sandra C Quinn, Rupali J Limaye, Suleiman Khan
Abstract: Muslims and people perceived as Muslims face Islamophobia, defined as an “irrational fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against Islam or people who practice Islam.” Reports of hate crimes motivated by Islamophobia have increased, as have other forms of Islamophobia, such as workplace discrimination. This qualitative study examined the impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Americans, ranging from school and workplace discrimination to policies that target Muslims, such as government surveillance. The objectives of this study were to document the spectrum of Islamophobia in the U.S. and to assess the impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Americans using components of grounded theory, qualitative data collection, and analysis. Using a semi-structured interview guide, a total of 40 participants (20 women, 20 men) were interviewed about self-reported experiences with Islamophobia and responses to bias incidents. Participants self-identified as Muslim, were at least 18 years of age, and represented various ethnic groups. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using Nvivo 12. Findings indicate that Islamophobia and xenophobia are significant sources of long-term stress. Participants discussed physical assaults in public locations, vandalism at their homes, persistent questioning regarding their country of origin, and verbal harassment in the form of derogatory terms. Islamophobia in the U.S. is multifaceted and a significant source of stress for Muslim Americans. Findings from this study and others on this topic highlight the need for interventions to support Muslim Americans.
Abstract: The purpose of the current hermeneutic phenomenological qualitative study was to understand the phenomenon of Muslim Americans’ lived experiences of Islamophobia prior to and two years into Donald Trump’s presidential administration. 14 participants from multiple regions in the United States completed a semi-structured interview via telephone. The data analysis revealed seven major themes: 1) Muslim Americans experience different dimensions of Islamophobia, 2) Muslim Americans experience various forms of Islamophobia, 3) Variables that impact the prevalence of Islamophobia, 4) Islamophobia impacts various areas of Muslim Americans’ lives, 5) Muslim Americans may react differently to experiences of Islamophobia, 6) Islamophobia impacts the mental well-being of Muslim Americans, and 7) Coping with Islamophobia. This study explores how Muslim Americans perceived the social and political climate during the Trump administration, the experiences of Islamophobia that have been present in the lives of Muslim Americans, and how Islamophobia has impacted the mental wellbeing of this population. Interpretations from the data analysis provide insight into the psychosocial consequences of experiencing Islamophobia. It also provides information detailing the coping strategies that have been used by Muslim Americans to manage the impact of Islamophobia, as well as preserve or grow their personal and social identity (Berjot & Gillet, 2011). Implications for clinicians and psychology training programs, educators, and Muslim Americans are also discussed.
Islamophobia and public mental health: Lessons learned from community engagement projects Sara Ali, Rania Awaad
Abstract: With the recent rise of Islamophobia and anti-Muslim sentiments, Muslim American communities have experienced ongoing stressors that have detrimental effects on their mental health. This challenge is further aggravated by multiple barriers to seeking help, including mental health stigma, lack of culturally and religiously sensitive mental health services, and fear of discrimination by mental health providers. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of engaging Muslim American communities and incorporating indigenous cultural practices in reducing the negative health effects of Islamophobia. We present innovative case studies from projects conducted in California that use community participatory approaches to engage Muslim Americans in mental health care in order to build resilient communities.
Abstract: This chapter describes Islamophobia from the American Muslim perspective. It highlights the experience of American Muslims with an emphasis on the current sociopolitical climate. Effects of discrimination on Muslim mental health, help-seeking behaviors, and public health are discussed. To this end, the chapter discusses current efforts to support Muslim mental health.
Arab American Adolescents’ Responses to Perceived Discrimination: A Phenomenological Study
Danielle Balaghi, Evelyn Oka, Dorinda Carter Andrews
Abstract: Racial discrimination is on the rise in the United States. Arab American Muslims is one group that has experienced an increase in perceived racial discrimination. Even less is known about Arab American Muslim Adolescents experiences of coping when faced with racial discrimination. This study aims to highlight the lived experiences of Arab American adolescents’ perceived racial discrimination as it relates to their coping experiences. There were 10 (female=5; male=5) Arab American youth ages 13-17 and identified as Muslim. Participants were recruited using purposive sampling. Using a phenomenological approach, data were collected using semi-structured individual interviews and online journals. Validity was assessed via member checks and triangulation of data using multiple participants and sources. The data were analyzed using interpretive phenomenological analysis, guided by Risk and Resilience theory and Critical Race Theory. Results highlighted three positive and three negative ways participants experienced coping to perceived racial discrimination. Implications of this study can aid psychologists in promoting positive responses to racial discrimination while also helping students recognize negative responses. Understanding the way an adolescent responds provides better insight into their psychological well-being.
The objective of this research is to gain a better understanding of how young Muslim Americans describe their cross-cultural experiences with Islamophobia, and how their experiences shape their social identities and coping strategies. The study extends the pilot study and taxonomy of Nadal et al. (2012) using a phenomenological research design and focus group interviews to describe the subjective perceptions and lived experiences of young adult Muslim Americans. The study provides detailed descriptions of the experiences, perceptions, and sense of belonging of young Muslim Americans coming of age within a changing historical and social context. Confirming and extending earlier research findings reveal how participants describe distinctive aspects of the Muslim identity, perceptions of lack of public awareness of the Islamic culture, and experiences of negative repercussions from the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States.
Abstract: Islam is the second largest religion making up 23.4% of the world's population in 2010, is projected to increase to 29.7% by 2050 and to 32.3% by 2070, and will reach 34.9% by 2100 (when it will be the largest religion in the world). Three-quarters of the world's Muslim population lives outside the Middle East and Northern Africa, largely in the Asia-Pacific region (particularly Indonesia and Malaysia). It is important, then, to know about the relationship between religiosity and mental health in Muslims, since it is likely that clinicians worldwide will see more and more Muslim patients in their practices over the next decades. Muslims are now in a difficult situation due to stigma, exclusion, and sometimes persecution, particularly those outside of Muslim-majority countries (and even within some Muslim countries). Mental illness stigma is a huge issue among Muslims and serves as a major barrier to help-seeking for individuals with mental Illness. Given the importance of family honor and community acceptance among Muslims, mental illness is often concealed and hidden. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved)
Abstract: After the 9/11 attacks, various United States law enforcement and intelligence agencies increased their monitoring and surveillance of American Muslims. We assessed the prevalence of such experiences with a sample of American Muslims. One-fifth of participants reported personal experiences with government surveillance. Relative to those not monitored, American Muslims who reported being monitored also reported being more anxious—but not more angry— about the prospect of government surveillance. Additionally, those monitored reported being more likely to modify their behaviors, avoiding contexts that might lead to government suspicion and future surveillance. Anxieties over the prospect of surveillance mediated the relationship between being previously monitored and modifying their behaviors. Parallels between these findings and literature on social identity threat and emotion regulation are discussed.
Religious Coping Among Muslims with Mental and Medical Health ConcernsSeyma N. Saritoprak, Julie J. Exline
Abstract: Studies suggest that a lack of understanding and sensitivity around religious issues by healthcare professionals may be a noteworthy barrier for Muslims seeking treatment. One way to help bridge the gap between Muslims' healthcare needs and healthcare utilization rates may be through fostering awareness and sensitivity about the influence of Islam on how Muslims cope with their illness experience. Using a biopsychosocial-spiritual theoretical framework, a main aim of this chapter is to consider a variety of ways that Muslims use religion to cope with physical and mental health challenges. Religious coping can take a variety of forms: Positive religious coping involves making use of Islam in beneficial manners. Negative religious coping, referred to here as r/s struggles, often involves tension or conflict regarding matters of religion. Understanding the role that religion/spirituality can play in how Muslims cope with their physical or mental illness may help to foster higher quality, more culturally sensitive care. Recommendations and limitations are discussed.
Abstract: This qualitative study used an intersectional lens to explore coping methods among Muslim immigrant women living in Los Angeles. Results of a thematic analysis revealed that Muslim immigrant women deal with challenges resulting from different stereotypes against their identity. While Islam is deeply integrated to the participants’ identity, it is associated with harmful and terrorist activities in media. Using an intersectional lens demonstrates that Muslim immigrant women deal with extra layers of pressure due to the perpetuated stereotypes against their place of birth and gender-roles that portray them in a negative light. Findings of this study indicate the powerful impacts of the religious and cultural backgrounds on Muslim immigrant women as these factors form their identity and coping methods. The participants cope with challenges by relying on the components of their religious and cultural backgrounds and destigmatizing stereotypes in different forms such spreading awareness, demonstrating decent behaviors, and engaging in advocacy. Identifying with collectivist cultural background has also led the participants to cope with challenges in more collectivist approaches rather than Western individualistic methods. In addition, the prevalence of diversity in Los Angeles was observed to act as a protective factor shielding the participants from negative outcomes of stereotypes. Diversity in Los Angeles has created a safe dynamic for the participants to practice their religion in mosques and Islamic centers peacefully and to disclose the truthful aspects of their identity positively. Implications for social work include the importance of enhancing diversity to support. Muslim immigrant women who rely on their religious and cultural backgrounds to deal with the accumulative burden of stereotypes.
Muslim youth in the face of Islamophobia: Risk and resilience
Madiha Tahseen, Sawssan R. Ahmed, Sameera Ahmed
Abstract: American Muslim adolescents experience the process of coming of age in a divisive sociopolitical atmosphere characterized by bullying in various contexts (school, neighborhoods, social settings) and from both peers and adults. Although the pervasiveness of bullying places them at risk for poor outcomes, there are many protective and health-promoting factors that may buffer them from the impact of bullying—and more importantly, enable them to thrive in society. The experience of bullying for Muslim adolescents is multifaceted, comprising direct and indirect forms of aggression, occurring across many contexts and from many different perpetrators. Though research findings highlighted in this chapter provide insight into the impact of bullying and discrimination on Muslim adolescents, much more research is needed. Clinicians working with Muslim adolescents can play a unique and crucial role in fostering the well-being of Muslim adolescents and helping these youth manage the negative effects of anti-Muslim discrimination. Any individual who works with American Muslim youth should strive to adopt therapeutic and preventive strategies targeted toward various areas of their lives to promote resilience.
Abstract: Muslim women, especially those wearing headscarves or hijab, are targets of anti-Muslim stereotypical rhetoric and violent attacks in the United States, with expected adverse effects on their mental wellbeing. This pilot research examines Muslim religious practice related to frequency of Islamophobic experiences, socio-emotional/mental distress, and coping strategies among American Muslim women since the 2016 American presidential election. This is a mixed methods study surveying adult Muslim women (n=35) living in the United States. Quantitative analyses included overall frequency and percent differences in various experiences for Muslim American women who always wear hijab (n=22) compared to those that do not always wear hijab (n=13). Qualitative data analyzed were derived from a focus group and from essays by survey respondents. All respondents (100%) reported a perceived increase in Islamophobia since the presidential election, and 26.5% (n=9) of respondents reported altering their religious practice as a result of the political climate since the 2016. Places/situations associated with greatest perceived vulnerability included: airports (74.3%), airplanes (45.7%), public bus (28.5%), driving (28.5%), and shopping malls (28.5%). Places/situations associated with high vulnerability in Muslim women was similar by hijab status with the exception of higher vulnerability for hijab-wearing (40.9%) vs. nonhijab wearing women in public bus transportation (P-value = 0.04). Experience of personal direct anti-Muslim aggression, i.e., violent words and actions, occurred more frequently (50%, n = 11) among women who report always wearing hijab compared to non-always hijab-wearing respondents (38.5%, N=5). Likewise, selfreported experience of fear over the past year was elevated (54.6% vs. 15.4%, P-value = 0.02) for hijab-wearing compared with non-hijab-wearing women. On the other hand, respondents’ experiences of anxiety (59.1% vs. 61.5% P-value = 0.89) and lack of safety (36.4% vs. 53.8% P-value = 0.31) over the past year was comparable for hijab wearing vs. non-hijab wearing women. Hijab-wearing women report more direct anti-Muslim aggression, experiencing more fear in general and feeling unsafe in more places than non-hijab-wearing women. That said, women’s experiences of a post-election U.S. political climate were not as divergent as we had expected, regardless of hijab status. Rather, anxiety about Islamophobia and experiencing a lack of safety by Muslim women are generalized experiences in a post-election moment in the United States. More research will be needed to know whether our participants’ responses reflected their immediate reaction to the election or a more long-term coping mechanism for the heightened visibility that Muslim women face in current American political rhetoric and foreign policy.
Abstract: The relationship between stress, trauma, microaggressions, overt violence and life satisfaction has long been established in the literature. This online study sought to identify significant predictors of life satisfaction in a Muslim American sample (N=247) that was 74.5% (N=184) female, 60.7% (N=150) Arab American/Middle Eastern, 21.9% (N=54) Asian American, and 10.5% (N=25) White. The sample had a mean age of 34.21 years with 70% married (N=173). Some 51.4% were born in the U.S. (51.4%, N=127); and, among those not U.S. born, 15.8% reported their country of origin was Egypt (N=39), followed by Palestinian Territories (6.5%, N=16) and Pakistan (5.7%, N=14). And 19.7% (N=49) have lived in the U.S. for 26-30 years. Also, 35.6% (N=88) completed a bachelor’s degree, 64.8% were employed (N=160) and, 31.6% reported an annual household income in the 50,000−99,000 bracket. This sample’s mean experience of microaggressions was 7.12 (SD=6.649, min=0, max=24) indicating low experience. While the mean exposure to overt acts of violence was 0.71 (SD= 1.457, min=0, max=9), indicating very low exposure. Regarding life satisfaction, 53.5% of the sample indicated a life satisfaction score of 8 or more (N=132). The mean perception to Islamophobia was 4.076, indicating a high ability to perceive Islamophobia. Using backwards stepwise regression, higher life satisfaction was significantly predicted by: being less likely to be depressed in the past year (B=-0.59, p=0.012); older age (B=0.038, p=0.001); better overall health status (B=0.361, p=0.001); better rating of quality of provider (B=0.351, p=0.001); lower perceived stress (B=-0.07, p=0.0); lower stage for coping and responding to Islamophobia (B=-0.17, p=0.025); higher use of “stop unpleasant thoughts” coping style (B=0.129, p=0.007) with R2= 0.584 (adjusted R2= 0.566; 56.6% of variance explained). Quantitative findings were augmented by emergent themes in the qualitative data. Case in point, living in a post-9/11 America and discrimination with subthemes including Islamophobia, acceptability of public discrimination, and destruction of personal property were found to be negatively associated with life satisfaction. Five overarching themes were found to be related to higher life satisfaction and ability to cope: feeling a sense of community, wearing hijab (headscarf for women), religiosity and Islamic identity, work, and financial stability.
Abstract: Following the 9/11 attacks in 2001 and several bombings in European countries such as London, many studies focused on the impact these attacks had on the lives and wellbeing of people in the West. Few studies, however, addressed the consequences of these tragic events for Muslims living in Western countries. The present review describes the impact these attacks had on the lives and mental health of Muslims. Analysis of existing research indicates that many Muslims experienced an increase in hate crimes, discrimination, racism and a loss of community, which all have a profound effect on their mental health. In addition, coping strategies and differences in this area between Muslims and non-Muslims are examined. Findings suggest that positive coping styles are associated with greater post-traumatic growth, whereas negative coping strategies are related to poorer mental health. A better understanding of the problems Muslims face may not only lead to better health outcomes, but it may contribute to more constructive ways of dealing with health issues of Muslims by Western health providers. Implications for mental health professionals and recommendations for future studies are made.
Section 3. Coping With Islamophobia - Rest of the World
Stress, Religious Coping and Wellbeing in Acculturating Muslims
Zeenah Adam, Colleen Ward
Abstract: Situated within an international context of Islamophobia, this study examined acculturative stress, religious coping, and their interaction as predictors of subjective wellbeing in 167 New Zealand Muslims. A Muslim Religious Coping (MRC) scale was adapted for the purposes of this study, measuring religious coping across three domains of Cognitive, Behavioral, and Social MRC. Consistent with hypotheses: 1) acculturative stress predicted a lower level of Life Satisfaction and more psychological symptoms and 2) Behavioral, Cognitive and Social MRC predicted greater Life Satisfaction. In addition, an interaction effect between Acculturative Stress and Behavioral MRC was found indicating that engaging in religious practices buffered the detrimental effects of acculturative stress on life satisfaction. Contrary to the hypotheses, however, MRC did not demonstrate a main or interaction effect on psychological symptoms. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to positive and negative indicators of wellbeing, the importance of religious maintenance as a resource for acculturating Muslims living in a Western country, and the implications for counselors working with Muslim clients.
Role of Islamic appraisals, trauma-related appraisals, and religious coping in the posttraumatic adjustment of Muslim trauma survivors
Azi Berzengi, Latef Berzenji, Aladdin Kadim, Falah Mustafa, Laura Jobson
Abstract: Objective: This research investigated the role of Islamic appraisals, trauma-related appraisals, and religious coping in Muslim trauma survivors. Method: We report 2 studies of Muslim trauma survivors with and without posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) living in the United Kingdom (Study 1) and a sample of Muslim trauma survivors living in Northern Iraq (Study 2). In both studies participants completed the Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale, Brief Religious Coping Scale, Islamic Appraisal Questionnaire, and Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory in Arabic. Results: First, it was found that negative religious coping differentiated between trauma survivors with and without PTSD (Study 1) and was significantly correlated with PTSD symptoms (Study 2). Second, negative Islamic appraisals were significantly associated with greater PTSD symptoms whereas positive Islamic appraisals were significantly associated with fewer PTSD symptoms (Study 2). Third, negative trauma-related appraisals correlated significantly with, and uniquely predicted, PTSD symptoms (Study 2). Finally, trauma-related appraisals were found to mediate the relationship between negative Islamic appraisals and negative religious coping and PTSD symptoms. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the theoretical emphasis on trauma-related cognitions may also be applicable to our understanding of PTSD in Muslim trauma survivors. However, for this population, trauma-related appraisals and subsequent coping strategies may be influenced by Islamic beliefs and values. Clinically, our findings suggest that addressing PTSD symptoms in Muslim trauma survivors may require clinicians to consider the impact of trauma on the survivor's religious appraisals and relationship with God.
Islamophobia as a form of Radicalisation Perspectives on Media, Academia and Socio-Political Scapes From Europe and Canada
Abdelwahed Mekki Berrada, Leen D'Haenens
Abstract: This book is divided into four parts: Key concepts (part I); Contemporary political discourses on Islamophobia (part II); Media practices (part III); and Responding to Islamophobia, extremism and radicalisation (part IV). In this introductory chapter, we discuss the scope and shattered boundaries of Islamophobia as both a concept and a sociopolitical reality. We then attempt a definition of Islamophobia’s theoretical and pragmatic dimensions. This conceptual chapter brings together an anthropologist and a communication scholar to consider whether and to what extent Islamophobia is a form of violent radicalisation. This will serve as a background against which we will present the fifteen chapters of this collective book, which relate interdisciplinary research, media content analyses, media discourse analysis, ethnographic research, intersectoral advocacy work and action research conducted in Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Poland, Portugal and Spain.
Abstract: This paper aims to understand the mechanisms by which prejudice and negative stereotyping function and, in so doing, impact the self-esteem of targets of anti-Semitic and Islamophobic prejudices. Discourses of self-esteem have been well documented in psychological literature. Numerous studies into selfhood have explored racism against African-Americans by assessing self-esteem amongst Black youths. However, there is little research on the mechanisms connecting rhetorical and physical violence resulting from prejudice, and in particular Islamophobia and anti-Semitism, to low self-esteem. The intended contribution of this research paper is its attempt to elaborate these mechanisms and use them to offer insight into self-esteem. I intend to do this through a comparative analysis of the experiences of Jews living in the Weimar Republic of the 1920s and British Muslims post-9/11. Despite the different reasoning behind both, anti-Semitic and Islamophobic prejudice may affect self-esteem in similar ways. The paper sets out to evaluate how self-esteem is managed in both cases. This is done firstly by outlining the importance of self-esteem in understanding prejudice. Secondly, the paper assesses the ‘mechanisms’ through which prejudice is expressed in its targets. Finally, the paper discusses the reasons for choosing case studies of anti-Semitism and Islamophobia to analyse the concept of prejudice, and how this manner of engaging with literature on prejudice in turn gives a nuanced perspective to discourses of both anti-Semitism and Islamophobia.
Section 4. Coping With Racism - Non-Muslim and Canada
Abstract: Based on in-depth interviews and extensive observation, her study provides a richly detailed overview of the major cultural institutions in the lives of Afro-Caribbean residents of Toronto
Discrimination: An Invisible Evil
Donald W. Taylor , Stephen Wright, Karen Ruggiero
Abstract: The discourse of health reform has emphasized the need to increase public participation in decision-making as a way to enhance accountability. Despite recent gains in public participation in health care — primarily through citizen governance of regional health authorities — a clearly articulated accountability framework remains elusive in the Canadian context. If citizen participation is to be effective and meaningful, governing boards and politicians need to adopt an accountability framework that clearly delineates roles and responsibilities.
Chinese Refugees Coping with Stress in Toronto
Guang Tian​
Abstract: ALTHOUGH MUCH IS KNOWN about the causes of stress and the subsequent coping responses (Folkman and Lazarus, 1985; Lumsden,1984), research on stress related to adaptation to Canada has increased considerably (Chataway and Berry, 1989; Sommers, 1993; Zheng and Berry, 1991). Adaptation, or changes resulting from first-hand contact with a new culture, can be very stressful (Berry and Kim, 1988; Sommers, 1993). This study examines the problems experienced by the mainland Chinese refugees (MCRs) in metro Toronto, it identifies the stress MCRs faced in their everyday lives, and it examines the resources which they can draw upon to cope. It also describes the social and eco-nomic achievements of specific MCRs to highlight the ways in which many of these people adapt. An outline of their ongoing process of adaptation to the host society is presented in this chapter.
Section 5. Coping With Racism - Non-Muslim and USA
Abstract: The second edition of this popular book adds important new research on how racial stereotyping is gendered and sexualized. New interviews show that Asian American men feel emasculated in America’s male hierarchy. Women recount their experiences of being exoticized, subtly and otherwise, as sexual objects. The new data reveal how race, gender, and sexuality intersect in the lives of Asian Americans. The text retains all the features of the renowned first edition, which offered the first in-depth exploration of how Asian Americans experience and cope with everyday racism. The book depicts the “double consciousness” of many Asian Americans—experiencing racism but feeling the pressures to conform to popular images of their group as America’s highly achieving “model minority.”
Racism and Psychiatry Contemporary Issues and Interventions
Morgan M. Medlock, Derri Shtasel, Nhi-Ha T. Trinh, David R. Williams
Abstract: This book addresses the unique sociocultural and historical systems of oppression that have alienated African-American and other racial minority patients within the mental healthcare system. This text aims to build a novel didactic curriculum addressing racism, justice, and community mental health as these issues intersect clinical practice. Unlike any other resource, this guide moves beyond an exploration of the problem of racism and its detrimental effects, to a practical, solution-oriented discussion of how to understand and approach the mental health consequences with a lens and sensitivity for contemporary justice issues. After establishing the historical context of racism within organized medicine and psychiatry, the text boldly examines contemporary issues, including clinical biases in diagnosis and treatment, addiction and incarceration, and perspectives on providing psychotherapy to racial minorities. The text concludes with chapters covering training and medical education within this sphere, approaches to supporting patients coping with racism and discrimination, and strategies for changing institutional practices in mental healthcare.
Social Cognition, Ethnic Identity, and Ethnic Specific Strategies for Coping with Threat Due to Prejudice and Discrimination
Amado M. Padilla​
Abstract: Diversity is a much used term in the United States. Diversity means the existence of peoples from different cultures, who speak different languages, hold different religious beliefs, rituals and practices, celebrate different holidays, take pleasure in different forms of entertainment, interact with family and friends in different ways, and enjoy different types of food and food preparation. Diversity also implies that people, because of the color of their skin color and physical appearance, are easily identifiable as different from the majority group. Although, historians note that diversity is not new in America, something has changed the discourse of diversity (Takaki, 1993). At least three macrochanges are in part responsible for how we view diversity today. These changes include the Civil Rights movement that began in the 1960s, the large increase in Hispanic and Asian populations due to changes in immigration policy beginning in 1965, and economic and political upheavals in developing countries that have resulted in large-scale migration to America. Collectively, these forces have changed the racial and ethnic landscape of this country.
Abstract: The College recognizes that racism and discrimination exist in medicine and organizations associated with medicine. Early in 2021, the College engaged an independent, external task force led by Mr. Doug Ruck Q.C. to review the College’s operations through the lens of anti-Black racism. The task force was composed of African Nova Scotians selected by Mr. Ruck. The task force has now completed its review and issued its report: From the Inside: An External Review into Systemic Anti-Black Racism Within the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Nova Scotia. “The Report provides a framework for change. The College has unequivocally accepted its responsibility and understands that addressing anti-Black racism must be initiated from the top and be informed by those working for and with the College (while recognizing the need to increase the number of Black employees and representation on the Council) and by listening to voices from the African Nova Scotian community,” said Mr. Doug Ruck, the Chair of the task force. In addition to reviewing College documentation such as terms of reference for its governing council and committees and internal operational policies, the task force interviewed and surveyed staff, committee members, physicians and members of the public. Written submissions from stakeholders were also part of the review. “The College wishes to express its gratitude for the important work of Mr. Ruck and the members of the task force,” said Dr. Gus Grant, Registrar & CEO of the College. “We undertook this review in recognition that racism exists in medicine and in the regulation of medicine. This report provides the College with an essential roadmap to begin to dismantle systemic anti-Black racism from the College’s policies and procedures.”Systemic anti-Black racism will not be addressed through the issuance of reports or by statements denouncing its existence absent specific actions to address the policies and practices historically embedded in the institution that perpetuate and reinforce the attitudes and practices directed at those of African descent,” said Mr. Ruck. The report’s first recommendation is the establishment of an Equity, Diversity and Inclusion Committee to lead the development and implementation of an anti-Black racism strategy for the College. “Addressing anti-Black racism is a long-term commitment of the College. We have already begun to lean into the report’s recommendations by way of staff training and recruiting Black Nova Scotians as members of our Council and committees. This transformational work requires that we listen to diverse voices around our decision-making tables,” said Dr. Gus Grant.
Section 6. Effects / Impacts of Islamophobia on Muslims and Muslim Mental Health - Canda and the USA
Transference and Countertransference in Addressing Islamophobia in Clinical Practice
Neil Krishan Aggarwal​
Abstract: This chapter discusses the clinical manifestations of Islamophobia within mental health settings and how clinicians can transform awkward or even negative encounters into opportunities for therapeutic advancement. Islamophobia has been defined as "indiscriminate negative attitudes or emotions directed at Islam or Muslims". The chapter defines and discusses Islamophobia, offering examples of its detrimental effects on mental health. It also presents case vignettes on how Islamophobia can manifest through common forms of transference and countertransference whenever a patient or clinician is perceived to be Muslim. Finally, the chapter uses the Cultural Formulation Interview supplementary module on the patient-clinician relationship to organize practical strategies for clinicians to respond to such psychological reactions constructively. Clinicians may find questions from the Cultural Formulation Interview supplementary module on the patient-clinician relationship to be helpful in engaging curiously with patients. Patients and clinicians may walk into sessions with a predisposition toward Islamophobia, but the therapeutic encounter that sensitively confronts interpersonal differences in identity can become a forum of personal transformation for both parties
Abstract: The rise of Islamophobia has undoubtedly disrupted the identity and way of life of Muslim Americans in the last decade and half. This study centres on the voices of eight Muslim Americans discussing the mental health impact of anti-Muslim discrimination and prejudice, the pervasiveness of xenophobic and Islamophobic perspectives in the U.S., and the normalization and acceptance of discrimination as evidenced by the presidential victory of Donald Trump. The major findings of this study indicate that the marginalization and othering of Muslim Americans have manifested in adverse psychological symptoms including fear, stress, worry, isolation, numbness, desensitization, and insecurity. In addition, this study explores how one renegotiates Muslim American identity after the denigration of their faith. Collective Trauma Theory is utilized to address both the larger-scale impact that Islamophobia presents to the collective consciousness of this community, as well as the resilience of the Muslim American community as a collective unit.
Abstract: The purpose of this quantitative correlational study with moderation was to examine the differing moderating roles of centrality and in-group superiority in the relationship between perceived Islamophobia and psychological distress. Perceived Islamophobia, group centrality, in-group superiority, and psychological distress were measured using Perceived Islamophobia Scale, the shorter version of the Identity Centrality Scale , Perceived In-Group Superiority Scale , and Kessler Psychological Distress Scale. In this study, a convenience sample (N = 113) of Muslim males and females above 18 years old was used. An online survey tool, SurveyMonkey, was used to collect data from Muslim immigrants living in Calgary, Canada. The analytical strategy was to conduct 2 separate hierarchical moderated regression analyses (1 for identity centrality and 1 for in-group superiority) to examine the moderating role group identity. Social identity theory provided the theoretical foundation to answer the question of how perceived Islamophobia impacts the psychological distress of Muslim immigrants in Canada. The findings indicated that perceived Islamophobia significantly predicts psychological distress among Muslim immigrants in Canada, and identity centrality significantly moderates the relationship between perceived Islamophobia and psychological distress by buffering against the negative effects of percieved group discrimination. However, ingroup superiority was not a significant moderator in the relationship between perceived Islamophobia and psychological distress.The findings will be beneficial for the practitioners and policy makers to devise better intervention strategies for the wll-being of muslim immigrants in Canda to bring a positive social change in society.
Impact of Islamophobia on Post-Secondary Muslim Students Attending Ontario Universities
Hassina Alizai ​
Abstract: This study investigated the experiences of Muslim Canadian students attending institutions of higher education in the context of increasing Islamophobia. This study utilized qualitative case study methodology to investigate the following questions: (1) What are the experiences of Muslim Canadians attending institutions of higher education in the current context of Islamophobia? (2) How is the rising anti-Muslim sentiment impacting the academic performance of Muslim students? (3) How do Muslim students negotiate or navigate their identities subsequent to recent national and international tragic events (e.g. Paris Attacks, San Bernardino and other terrorist atrocities)? The students’ responses resulted in three major themes that included: (a) Islamophobia on Campus; (b) Strong religious identity, and Resisting and challenging Islamophobic sentiments; (c) Gendered Islamophobia. The findings of this research indicate that Muslim students have more attachment to their religious identity, are at the forefront of advocating for Muslims and are actively working to demystify Islamophobic notions
Abstract: Backed by both religious training and psychiatric training, Dr. Rania Awaad describes her journey addressing the mental health needs of the Muslim community residing in the San Francisco Bay Area of California, United States. The synchrony between community partnerships and academic support proves to be a key ingredient in working in a faith-based community typically averse to “Western” mental health services.
Survey of MSA West Student Members: Perseverance in the Face of Adversity
Colin Christopher​
Abstract: Muslim Student Associations are often an integral space for American Muslims’ social, spiritual, and political development. To better understand the perspectives of Muslim students in California, ISPU and MSA West partnered to administer a survey during the annual MSA West Conference at the University of California, Irvine. The results of this convenience sample of MSA West students provide a snapshot of their strengths and struggles. We offer data-driven recommendations highlighting opportunities for funders, university administrations, and campus MSAs to address some of the challenges that were identified in the survey.
The Racialization of Islam in the United States: Islamophobia, Hate crimes, and "Flying while brown"
Craig Considine​
Abstract: This paper explores the intersectionality of race and Islamophobia by using a set of empirical data relating to the experiences of American Muslims and non-Muslims in the United States. Through a multi-tiered methodology, the paper reveals how racialization processes interact with Islamophobic discourses and actions in American society. Specifically, the dataset is anchored in U.S. public perceptions of American Muslims, hate crime incidents against Muslims and non-Muslims, and the institutionalization of Islamophobia. The paper, which shows how race is endemic to Islamophobic incidents, appeals to the general U.S. public, especially community members from religious, political, academic, civil rights, and social justice backgrounds.
Islamophobia Through the Eyes of Muslims: Assessing Perceptions, Experiences and Impacts
Elsadig Elsheikh, Basima Sisemore​
Abstract: The Othering & Belonging Institute developed and administered this national survey between October 14 and November 2, 2020, among the US Muslim population (citizens and noncitizen residents who live and/or work in the US) to understand the prevalence of Islamophobia in the US. In so doing, we intentionally set the survey to assess Islamophobia’s prevalence from the perspectives of those who bear the brunt of its effects on their daily lives. Additionally, the study sought to account for the diversity of US Muslims and sought to assess their societal engagement, worldviews, and belonging as they navigate their lives in the US.
Securitization of Islam and Religious Discrimination: Religious Minorities in Western Democracies 1990 - 2008
Jonathon Fox, Yasemine Akbaba
Abstract:This study draws substantially on ‘securitization’ theory to examine whether religious discrimination against Muslims as compared with other religious minorities is disproportionately higher in Western democracies. We explore variation in the treatment of religious minorities in the West using a special version of the Religion and State-Minorities Round 2 (RAS2-M) data set. We analyse the extent and causes of 29 different kinds of religious discrimination against 86 religious minorities in 27 Western democracies (coded yearly from 1990 to 2008). The results support the securitization argument showing that Muslims suffer from higher levels of discrimination in comparison with other religious minorities, especially since 2001.
Anti-Muslim Racism and Women's Health
Dena Hassouneh
Abstract: Author is in school of nursing. Despite ethnic and racial diversity among American Muslim Women, American Muslim women face systematic discrimination and inequities based on common identity. The term ‘Islamophobia’ is insufficient in fully addressing the discrimination Muslim women face, Anti-Muslim racism is more appropriate. Author argues that Anti-Muslim racism also gendered, and one that is greatly overlooked in healthcare, despite experiences of discrimination in healthcare settings, with little information available on health of Muslim women in U.S. Editorial calls to action greater efforts on behalf of researchers and healthcare professionals to address the needs of Muslim Women.
Challenges of Islamophobia: Psychiatric Considerations for Effectively Working with Muslim Patients
Fahad Khan
Abstract: Each of the ethnic subgroups of American Muslims carries its own social and cultural histories and norms. While socially, culturally, and economically diverse, the Muslim American community shares a religious worldview that shapes all areas of life. This integrated and enmeshed system of values sometimes creates complications for the individual, when there is a dilemma created by the need to balance the preservation of their religious and cultural identities with integration into mainstream American culture. As such, both culture and religion, individually and collectively, affect the cognitive and behavioral understandings and practices of Muslim Americans. Historically, Muslims have integrated well with American society. Muslim Americans are second with regard to level of education compared to other major religious groups. Muslim Americans have been found to be more educated and affluent than Muslim Europeans. This chapter briefly discusses the challenges of Islamophobia and the psychiatric considerations for effectively working with Muslim patients. Studies have assessed factors that affect help-seeking attitudes and behaviors of Muslims. The chapter proposes a summary of these barriers related to (a) the patient, (b) the clinician, and (c) the culture. It also offers the recommendations to help address the barriers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved)
Covered but Not Sterile: Reflections on Being a Hijabi in Medicine and Surgery
Rahima Khatun, Zena Saleh, Sareema Adna, Faiza Boukerche, Amanda Cooper
Abstract: First used in the Qur’an to describe the separation between public and private life, the Arabic word hijab can be translated as “curtain” or “partition.”1 Over time, the hijab has come to mean the veil or headcovering some Muslim women choose to wear, often also encompassing modest attire. Those who choose to wear hijab do so for various reasons, including interpreting the religious commandment of modesty to include covering the hair. This piece presents the perspectives of 4 hijabi women at 1 academic medical center. It is not meant to speak for all Muslim women who wear hijab, but to raise awareness about the challenges of those in medicine who do.
Muslim Women and Islamophobia: Recognition, Prevention, and Treatment
Fauzia Mahr, Tania Nadeem
Abstract: Authors are psychiatrists. Chapter gives an overview of Muslim women role as mother/sister, etc, and rights. Moves to generalised discussion of islamophobia impact on Muslim women and gives a list of recommendations directed at clinical care providers about how to interpret actions. E.g. not eating non-halal food should not be labelled oppositional “food avoidance."
Community Resilience: Islamophobia and Psychiatry Recognition, Prevention, and Treatment
Andrew J McLean
Abstract: An important consideration of how groups manage change is reflected in the concept of community resilience. This is particularly relevant given the historical and current issue of Islamophobia as well as policies on US immigration and shifts in community demographics. This chapter reviews community resilience in the above context, explores the roots of how/why problems occur, and gives examples of response within the Muslim community and suggestions for individuals/communities. The material for this chapter includes literature review, the author’s experiences, and round-table discussions with young Muslim professionals/physicians.
Understanding Islamophobia and its Effects on Clinicians: Islamophobia and Psychiatry Recognition, Prevention, and Treatment
Samaiya Mushtaq, Saira Bhatti​
Abstract: Islamophobia has been on the rise both in public discourse and in the media. The rising prevalence of this form of discrimination has significant mental health implications for the discriminators, the victims, and mental health clinicians. Conceptualizing Islamophobia as a form of religious and racial discrimination allows for greater exploration of the term itself and the negative implications of using the suffix “-phobia.” Continued use of such a misnomer may be a disservice to those suffering from religious and racial discrimination as well as psychiatric illness. Psychiatrists are very likely to come across anti-Muslim views espoused by patients and potentially even by other clinicians, which can be especially jarring. However, psychiatrists are also in the unique position of being able to explore and potentially challenge patients’ anti-Muslim views as they would any other distorted thought process in the course of treatment, lending to a possibility of more empathetic learning and understanding of our patients. As a result, it is important that we develop a framework to understand “Islamophobia” and consider its effects. The aim of this chapter is twofold: to offer a critical exploration of the basis of the term “Islamophobia” in order to develop a more nuanced understanding of the implications of its use and to discuss current trends in anti-Muslim sentiment in the clinic setting and offer a future framework for addressing them.
Psychiatric Cultural Formulation in the Islamophobic Context: Islamophobia and Psychiatry Recognition, Prevention, and Treatment
Osman M Ali, Carol S North​
Abstract:Growing numbers of Muslims in America are affected by Islamophobia, a fear and/or loathing of Islam, Muslims, or those who are perceived as Muslim or sympathetic to Muslims, that is fueled by misinformation and discrimination. Mental health professionals need to provide competent and compassionate care for Muslims who may subsequently develop mental health problems as a result of the psychological distress associated with Islamophobia. This chapter uses the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) Outline for Cultural Formulation as a tool to help explain the relevance of Islamophobia to the clinical assessment and care of Muslims presenting with mental health problems. Because the Muslim community is so culturally diverse, the focus here is on those aspects of Islamic culture that is common across Muslims from different ethnic backgrounds and nationalities. As such, the formulation may need to be repeated for other aspects of the person's culture to enable an appreciation of the impact of those factors separately. The cultural formulation includes five elements: cultural identity of the individual, cultural conceptualizations of distress, psychosocial stressors and cultural features of vulnerability and resilience, cultural features of the relationship between the individual and the clinician, and overall cultural assessment
Religious Identity and Workplace Discrimination: A National Survey of American Muslim Physicians
Aasim I. Padela, Huda Adam, Maha Ahmad, Zahra Hosseinian, Farr Curlin
Abstract: Background: Invidious discrimination is unreasonable and unethical. When directed against patients, such discrimination violates the respect for persons at the heart of bioethics. Might such discrimination also be directed at times toward physicians themselves? Studies of workplace discrimination have largely focused on race and gender, with few examining whether religious identity attracts discrimination. Muslim physicians from diverse backgrounds comprise 5% of the U.S. physician workforce and, given the sociopolitical climate, may face anti-Muslim discrimination in the workplace. We assessed the prevalence of perceived religious discrimination and its association with measures of religiosity through a national survey of American Muslim physicians. Methods: A questionnaire including measures of religiosity, perceived religious discrimination, religious accommodation at the workplace, and discrimination-related job turnover was mailed to 626 Islamic Medical Association of North America members at random in 2013. Results: Two hundred fifty-five physicians responded (41% response rate). Most were male (70%), South Asian (70%), and adult immigrants to the United States (65%). Nearly all (89%) considered Islam as the most or a very important part of their life, and most (63%) prayed five times daily; 24% reported experiencing religious discrimination frequently over their career, and 14% currently experience religious discrimination at work. After adjusting for personal and practice characteristics, respondents for whom religion was most important had greater odds of experiencing religious discrimination at their current workplace (OR 3.9, p < .01). Sixteen respondents reported job turnover due to religious discrimination, of whom 12 rated religion as the most important part of their life. Conclusions: A significant minority of Muslim clinicians experience religious discrimination at work, and particularly those for whom their religion is most important. Further research is needed to undergird data-driven programs and policies that might reduce invidious, religion-directed discrimination in the health care workplace.
"They Can't Understand it" : Maternity Health and Care Needs of St. John's Immigrant Muslim Women
Sylvia Reitmanova, Diana L Gustafson
Abstract: Objectives: The purpose of this qualitative study was to document and explore the maternity health care needs and the barriers to accessing maternity health services from the perspective of immigrant Muslim women living in St. John's, Canada. Methods: A purposive approach was used in recruiting six individuals to participate in in-depth semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed using a two-step process of content analysis. Three metathemes were identified and compared to previous research on maternity health and the care needs of immigrant women. Results: Women experienced discrimination, insensitivity, and lack of knowledge about their religious and cultural practices. Health information was limited or lacked the cultural and religious specificity to meet their needs during pregnancy, labor and delivery, and postpartum phases. There were also significant gaps between existing maternity health services and women's needs for emotional support, and culturally and linguistically appropriate information. This gap was further complicated by the functional and cultural adjustments associated with immigration. Conclusions: Maternity health care information and practices designed to meet the needs of mainstream Canadian-born women lacked the flexibility to meet the needs of immigrant Muslim women. Recommendations for change directed at decision-makers include improving access to culturally and linguistically appropriate maternity and health-related information, developing the diversity responsiveness of healthcare providers and the organizations where they work and establishing social support networks and partnerships with immigrant communities. Changes that address the needs of immigrant Muslim women have the potential to create more inclusive and responsive maternity health services for all Canadian women.
Perceived Religious Discrimination and its Relationship to Anxiety and Paranoia Among Muslim Americans
Alyssa Rippy, Elana Newman
Abstract: Although the effects of discrimination and hate crimes among various minority member's mental health is documented, no research to date examines the correlates of perceived discrimination among Muslim Americans. Therefore, this study examined perceived discrimination and its association with subclinical paranoia and anxiety among 152 Muslim Americans. A statistically significant relationship was found between perceived religious discrimination and subclinical paranoia, but perceived discrimination and anxiety were not related. There were also significant differences among ethnic groups and between convert, immigrant, second-generation Muslims in the perception of discrimination. Results suggest that perceived discrimination among Muslim Americans is related to the expression of increased vigilance and suspicion and that group differences affect the perception of discrimination.
Consequences of 9/11 and the War on Terror on Children's and Young Adult's Mental Health: a Systematic Review of the Past 10 Years
Cecile Rousseau, Uzma Jamil, Kamaldeep Bhui, Meriem Boudjarane
Abstract: This mixed method systematic review appraises the individual, familial and systemic effect of 9/11 and the war on terror for majority and minority children and youth in North America. The results highlight the broad social consequences of the socio-political transformations associated with the terror context, which cannot be understood only through a trauma focus analysis. The social stereotypes transformed youth experiences of belonging and exclusion. The difference between the consequences for majority and minority youth suggests the need for a broader appraisal of this societal context to support the development of prevention and intervention intersectorial programs.
Abstract: Anti-Muslim sentiments are increasingly common globally and in the United States. The recent rise in Islamophobia calls for a public health perspective that considers the stigmatized identity of Muslim Americans and the health implications of Islamophobic discrimination. Drawing on a stigma, discrimination, and health framework, I expand the dialogue on the rise of Islamophobia to a discussion of how Islamophobia affects the health of Muslim Americans. Islamophobia can negatively influence health by disrupting several systems—individual (stress reactivity and identity concealment), interpersonal (social relationships and socialization processes), and structural (institutional policies and media coverage). Islamophobia deserves attention as a source of negative health outcomes and health disparities. Future public health research should explore the multilevel and multidimensional pathways between Islamophobia and population health.
Islamophobia Health and Public Health a Systematic Literature Review
Goleen Samari, Héctor E Alcalá, Mienah Zulfacar Sharif
Abstract: Background: In 2017, a "Muslim ban" on immigrants to the United States was coupled with a continued rise in Islamophobia and hate crimes toward Muslims. Islamophobia undermines health equity, yet delineating the effects of Islamophobia globally is challenging as it affects a myriad of groups (geographically, racially, and socially). Additionally, stereotypes equate all Muslims with populations from the Middle East and South Asia. To date, health research pays insufficient attention to Islamophobia, Muslims, and those racialized to be Muslim. Objectives: This literature review advances our understanding of racism and health by examining the racialization of religion, by specifically examining Islamophobia as a form of discrimination. Search methods: Per PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a search in October 2017 using PubMed-MEDLINE and a combination of terms. We identified additional articles using other search engines. For inclusion, articles needed to include a descriptor of discrimination, contain an identifier of Muslim or Muslim-like identity (i.e., groups commonly perceived as Muslim, including Arabs, Middle Easterners, North Africans, and South Asians), include a health outcome, be in English, and be published between 1990 and 2017. Selection criteria: We identified 111 unique peer-reviewed articles. We excluded articles that did not meet the following criteria: (1) examined Islamophobia, discrimination, or racism among a Muslim or Muslim-like population; (2) included a health outcome or discussion of health disparities; and (3) was conducted in North America, Europe, Australia, or New Zealand. This yielded 53 articles. Results: The majority of studies (n = 34; 64%) were quantitative. The remaining studies were qualitative (n = 7; 13%), mixed methods (n = 2; 4%), or reviews (n = 10; 19%). Most studies were based in the United States (n = 31; 58%). Nearly half of the reviewed studies examined mental health (n = 24; 45%), and one fourth examined physical health or health behaviors (n = 13; 25%). Others focused on both physical and mental health (n = 10; 19%) or health care seeking (n = 7; 13%). Studies showed associations between Islamophobia and poor mental health, suboptimal health behaviors, and unfavorable health care-seeking behaviors. Conclusions: This study elucidates the associations between Islamophobia, health, and socioecological determinants of health. Future studies should examine the intersectional nature of Islamophobia and include validated measures, representative samples, subgroup analyses, and comparison groups. More methodologically rigorous studies of Islamophobia and health are needed. Public Health Implications. Addressing the discrimination-related poor health that Muslims and racialized Muslim-like subgroups experience is central to the goals of health equity and assurance of the fundamental right to health.
Abstract: While much has been written about Islamophobia in recent years, in the interest of scope, this chapter primarily makes reference to and expounds on a divisive ideological profile that has the potential to be activated when we work with or think clinically about Muslims—or those thought to be so; the analysis is offered from a psychoanalytic perspective. The chapter emanates from a place of deep belief in psychoanalysis as a viable theory to metabolize, hold, and further the growing ability of ethical clinicians to name and address Islamophobia (much like other forms of sociopolitical systemic abuses), especially in previously unanalyzable spaces. It offers two examples from within the field: one extreme, if not dangerous, and another more benign, each of which will explicate a facet of this unconscious phenomenon. While neither example is a clinical vignette, they offer us an illustration of how clinicians themselves are called to participate, validate, and reproduce Islamophobic normative unconscious processes. The Islamophobic normative unconscious emerges as a formidable apparition that has the potential to cloud psychoanalytic theory and technique and unwittingly create hegemonic collusion within the therapeutic space.
Abstract: A survey done in 2017 for the University of Toronto’s Provostial Advisory Group found that among medical residents, 44% reported experiencing discrimination and/or harassment. Of the 33% that reported discrimination only, 60% were identifiably Muslim. Of the 33% that reported discrimination, out of many subgroups, more females than males reported discrimination (44% vs 21% overall). For Muslims it was 58% female and 31% male.
Islamophobia in Canada: Measuring the Realities of Negative Attitudes Towrd Muslims and Religious Discrimination
Sarah Wilkins-Laflamme
Abstract: There has been growing discussion surrounding the phenomenon of Islamophobia in Western societies over the last few years. However, in-depth empirical research of the prevalence and patterns of prejudice toward Muslims remains scarce, especially in the Canadian context. With data from the 2011 Canadian Election Study and the 2014 General Social Survey, this study measures the extent to which negative feelings toward Muslims are present among the general adult population, and the extent to which Muslim Canadians themselves say they have experienced discrimination in recent years due to their religion, ethnicity, and culture.
Children, Adolescents, and Islamophobia: Islamophobia and Psychiatry Recognition, Prevention and Treatment
Sana Younus, Asad Mian
Abstract: Islamophobia is a fear of or prejudice towards Muslims which can affect both the adult and pediatric population. Exposure to racial discrimination or other forms of overt or covert prejudice during the stages of racial identity formation could lead to the development of Islamophobia in children and adolescents. Historical and current events in which Muslims are portrayed in a negative way in the media may also play an important role in the etiology of Islamophobia in this population. Exposure to Islamophobic elements may affect the process of identity formation in Muslim children and adolescents, leading to poor self-esteem and possibly mental health conditions later in life. Muslim children and adolescents are also at a greater risk of being victims of bullying and acts of aggression. These individuals may also develop impaired relationship with parents, peers, and society in general. Parents and clinicians have a significant role in helping these individuals. It is important to have regular and open communication with children and adolescents about this important subject. Patient care plans must include the immediate family, school, and neighborhood as well as the larger society in which the child exists. At a societal level, various educational and policy-related strategies can play a role in the prevention and management of the contextual effects of Islamophobia.
Section 7. Muslims and Mental Health Services
Muslims and Mental Health Services: A Concept Map and a Theoretical Framework
Ahmet Tanhan. J.Scott Young
Abstract: Muslim populations in Western countries are growing, and they face biopsychosocial, spiritual, and economic challenges. Although Islam gives utmost attention to mental health stability, Muslims tend to underutilize mental health services. Mental health professionals, whether they be researchers, practitioners, or trainers working in schools, colleges/universities, mental health agencies, and research institutions, are well positioned to serve Muslims. Mental health professionals can address Muslims’ biopsychosocial and spiritual issues and enhance their quality of life. In the current study, as the authors, we (a) reviewed 300 peer-reviewed manuscripts on Muslim mental health to understand how researchers have used concept maps or theoretical frameworks to design their empirical research, (b) prepared a comprehensive concept map based on the literature review to determine the central concepts afecting Muslims’ approach to the use of mental health services, and (c) proposed a contextual theoretical (conceptual) framework. We titled the framework as Muslims’ approach to use of mental health services based on the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Theory of Reasoned Action (TPB/TRA) in the context of a Social Ecological Model (SEM). We drew the framework based on TPB/TRA, SEM, and the review of Muslim mental health literature (the concept map). The concept map and the framework provide the most important constructs about challenges Muslim’s face when attempting to utilize mental health services. Future researchers can use the concept map and the framework to conduct theoretically and evidence-based grounded empirical research. We provided implications for researchers, practitioners, educators, and social advocates wishing to contribute to service provision to this population.