LITERATURE
Section 1. Coping With Islamophobia in Canada
The Impact of Islamophobia on Muslim Students: A Systematic Review of the Literature
Abu Khalaf, Nadin; Woolweaver, Ashley B.; Reynoso Marmolejos, Roslyn; Little, Grace A.; Burnett, Katheryn; Espelage, Dorothy L.( School Psychology Review, v52 n2 p206-223 2023)
Abstract: Despite the rise in anti-Islamic sentiment, Muslim youth’s experiences of religious discrimination are under researched. The goal of this paper is to better understand the complexities associated with religious discrimination for youth and adolescents and how to mitigate the harm caused by these discriminatory experiences. This mixed methods systematic review consists of 44 qualitative and quantitative studies from 34 journals, discussing experiences of religious discrimination for participants ages 4–25 both in the United States and internationally. This review discussed student experiences, the context of school as a conduit for discrimination, how students responded to these instances, including protective factors and recommendations for future research and policy.
Abstract: When it comes to Muslims in the West, nothing is a more sensational visual symbol than the hijab. Due to the current Muslim and non-Muslim fixation on it, scholarly examination of hijab and related issues is necessary. The Muslim Veil in North America examines some of its historical, sociological/anthropological, and theological aspects. This book is dedicated to diasporic Muslim women, although introductory material in various chapters addresses readers unfamiliar with Islam. Undergraduates will appreciate its accessibility in comparison to most academic texts, and it will make the subject comprehensible to lay readers. Unfortunately, this means that the book wavers between being an academic (education, anthropology, and sociology) and a lay read. This is not because the entire book is tailored to different kinds of readers, but because its two parts are rather disjointed. Part 1 addresses a more lay and introductory social science-related reader with basic information; part 2, on the other hand, is a highly specialized examination of exegetical and hadith history.
Experiences of Muslims in Four Western Countries Post—9/11
Carenlee Barkdull, Khadija Khaja, Irene Queiro-Tajalli, Amy Swart, Dianne Cunningham, and Sheila Dennis
Abstract: This qualitative study explored the experiences of 34 Muslim individuals in four Western countries to gain a better understanding of their experiences with prejudice and discrimination following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. An intersectional lens reveals the interlocking nature of identity, oppression, and privilege, and the findings provide insights into what helps affected individuals and communities be resilient in the face of persistent anti-Muslim sentiment. The social work profession is called on to take a leadership role in addressing the stigmatization of Muslims as a social justice issue and to take action to ameliorate its causes and consequences.
Growing Up Muslim: The Impact of Islamophobia on Children in a Canadian Community
Siham Elkassem, Rick Csiernik, Andrew Mantulak, Gina Kayssi, Yasmine Hussain, Kathryn Lambert, Pamela Bailey, Asad Choudhary
Abstract: With the increase of anti-Muslim bigotry in the current political and societal climate, ethnic minority children in western nations may experience increased negative attention fueled by Islamophobia. Islamophobia is defined as the dislike of or prejudice against Islam, and individuals who are Muslims. A literature review yielded little research that examines the experience of Muslim children and their experiences with Islamophobia, particularly in the Canadian context. However, studies on the overall issue reveal Islamophobia is a phenomenon that has impacted Muslims around the world. This community-based study explored the dichotomous experiences of Muslim school-aged children who are taught theirs is a faith of peace and yet who regularly experience microaggressions and overt hostility because of their beliefs.
Muslim Psychiatrists in Training Address Islamophobia in Clinical Experiences
Salam El-Majzoub & Mim Fatmi
Abstract: Islamophobia has increased in the years following the events of September 11, 2001, and has impacted Muslims on a global scale, particularly in the Western world. The far-reaching implications of Islamophobia have affected Muslim clinicians with challenges in their patient-clinician relations. We attempt to highlight some of these challenges and the particularities in the psychiatric setting through clinical cases. We offer recommendations and advice to Muslim psychiatrists and their colleagues on how to approach and address these challenges.
Understanding and addressing Islamophobia through trauma-informed care
Zainab Furqan, Arfeen Malick, Juveria Zaheer and Javeed Sukhera
Abstract: Islamophobia in Canada has individual, societal and structural manifestations, including extreme violence perpetrated toward Muslims. Physical and mental health outcomes and patient experiences of health care settings are affected by Islamophobia. Principles of trauma-informed care can be used to address and mitigate the consequences of Islamophobia in health care settings. Clinicians should reflect on biases and prejudicial views that they may hold toward Muslim people. Based on the clinical context, when appropriate, clinicians should consider exploring the impact of Islamophobia on their patients and supporting them as needed.
Abstract: Previous literature, although helpful in demonstrating the insidious nature and effects of Islamophobia on Muslims, does not underscore the varying forms and intensities of Islamophobia that a diverse range of Muslims in the West face and the powerful ways in which race and socio-economic class factor into their experiences, coping mechanisms, and stigma responses. This dissertation contributes to the literature on Muslims in The West in three ways: (1) offering a qualitative approach to understanding the ways in which Islamophobia is perpetuated through media discourse and coinciding political legislation, and is experienced differently by a diverse range of Muslims in Canada, (2) adding the concepts of spiritual marginalization, spiritual homelessness, and social status optimization to the analytic vocabulary on integration and articulating their relationship with identity, and (3) making a connection between race and social class and the response to Islamophobia and articulating their relationship with human agency. In chapter one, I provide an in-depth literature review on Islamophobia in the West. In chapter two, I present the results of a discourse analysis study that highlights the structural dimensions of Islamophobia through media representations and framing of incidences involving Muslim vs. non-Muslim perpetrators of violence. In chapter three, I present the results of a study that showcases group level experiences of racism amongst a relatively powerless group of Muslim refugee youth in Hamilton Ontario and St. John’s Newfoundland and Labrador. In chapter four, I provide a contrasting response to stigma by reporting on the experiences and mobilization of a socioeconomically privileged group of first, second and third generation Muslims in Edmonton. Finally, I summarize the conceptual findings of each paper, review and discuss the general theoretical and conceptual contributions of the dissertation to existing literature, and provide suggestions on future directions for studying Islamophobia and Muslim integration in The West.
Abstract: As of November 2015, 34 696 Syrian refugees have resettled in Canada (Government of Canada, 2016). Previous studies with refugee populations have found: a) depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder resulting from trauma in their country of origin; and b) problems with discrimination and Islamophobia in new host cultures. Thus, coping strategies have been crucial for refugees to thrive in their new host countries. The current study conducted qualitative interviews with 10 recently arrived Muslim, Arab, Syrian refugees in Windsor, Ontario. The interviews explored participants’ pre- and post-arrival experiences in Syria and Canada. The interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded using an interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) approach, into themes that emerged from refugees' lived experiences. Themes were organized based on the Transactional Model of Cultural Stress and Coping (Chun, Moos, & Cronkite, 2006). The results revealed superordinate themes that corresponded to each of the panels within the theoretical framework. The superordinate themes included 1) pre-migration stress and trauma; 2) identity assertion; 3) post-migration stressors; 4) religious and collective coping; and 5) positive outcomes and well-being in Canada. Pre-migration stress and trauma entailed fear for safety of family members, discrimination from citizens of neighbouring countries, and financial instability. Through enduring adversity, Syrian refugees asserted cultural and religious identities as well as their gender identities. Post-migration experiences included stressors in the form of acculturative stress, discrimination, financial burden, and survivor’s guilt and loss. To cope, Syrian refugee participants reported the use of religious coping and collective coping strategies to ultimately achieve positive outcomes and hopeful outlooks for their future in Canada. The findings expanded on existing literature on stress and coping, and illuminated the importance of the cultural and religious contexts of Muslim Syrian refugees in Canada.
Abstract: Canada is praised for its multiculturalism and diversity. However, throughout history, minority populations like Black, Indigenous and other People of Colour (BIPOC) have faced disadvantages and discrimination. This Major Research Paper (MRP) delves into the prejudice that Muslim women attending York University face, how it impacts their mental health, and how policymaking can improve the lives of this population. Since immigration policy shifts that began in 1967, the diversity of the Canadian population has increased. While in the 1970s and 1980s, immigrants were primarily Europeans practising Christianity, in recent years, almost half of all immigrants have come from Asia, Africa and the Middle East (Short, 2018). According to the 2011 Statistics Canada report, 387,590 immigrants identified as Muslim in comparison to the 210,680 Muslim individuals who first immigrated in 2000 (Short, 2018). The Canadian National Household Survey (NHS) in 2011 measured the demographics of the Canadian population (Shah, 2019). This survey reported that Muslim Canadians consisted 3.1% of the national population in 2011. The prevalence of Muslim Canadian residents in Ontario is highest (4.6%), followed by Alberta (3.2%) and Quebec (3.1%) (Shah, 2019). According to NHS data, first and secondgeneration Muslim Canadians have higher education levels than Canadians of other religious beliefs (Short, 2018). Nevertheless, Muslims experience greater religious-based, ethnic-based, gendered, and language-based discrimination than others. Muslim women are more prone to religious and gendered-based discrimination than men, particularly while at school and accessing public services (Short, 2018). The NHS survey data highlighted that a quarter of Muslims underwent difficulty when travelling, particularly crossing borders and using airports (Short, 2018). According to Statistics Canada, rates of hate crimes increased by 47% overall, but hate crimes specifically targeting Muslims increased by 151% (National Council of Canadian Muslims, 2018)
How Muslim students endure ambient Islamophobia on campus and in the community: resistance, coping and survival strategies: Recommendations for university administrators, faculty, and staff on how to support Muslim students’ social well-being and academic success
Moussa Magassa
Abstract: ​This study critically explores Muslim students’ experiences on campus and in the community and identifies the opportunities, barriers, and constraints in students’ academic and social relations with peers, university personnel and communities at large. The study provides practical recommendations grounded in evidence for university administrators, faculty, staff and other stakeholders in the areas of service delivery, policy, programs, and educational curriculum development and instruction. The study utilizes a constructivist grounded theory methodology informed by semi-structured interviews of 32 Muslim students in undergraduate and graduate programs as data collection methods. Ambient Islamophobia was uncovered as the central phenomenon. I use a group of theoretical categories, subdivided into properties and dimensions, to illustrate my theory. These theoretical categories are further regrouped into five themes, which illustrate: (1) the ambient and endemic nature of Islamophobia on campus and in the community; (2) the causal conditions of ambient Islamophobia and the processes by which Muslim students become aware and contextualize the complex and multilayered Eurocentric and Orientalist ideologies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors that entrench Islamophobia; (3) the impacts/ consequences of ambient Islamophobia that affect Muslim students cognitively, affectively and behaviorally; (4) the coping and resistance strategies Muslim students develop to counter ambient Islamophobia and achieve social well-being, academic success; and (5) the longing for belonging, while confronting expectations held about Canada and studying at the university. Understanding the processes and foundations of ambient Islamophobia can be used by stakeholders to develop more inclusive policies, programs and classrooms to support the social and academic success of Muslim students on campus.
Securitized Citizens Canadian Muslims’ Experiences of Race Relations and Identity Formation Post–9/11
Baljit Nagra
Abstract: Uninformed and reactionary responses in the years following the events of 9/11 and the ongoing ‘War on Terror’ have greatly affected ideas of citizenship and national belonging. In Securitized Citizens, Baljit Nagra, develops a new critical analysis of the ideas dominant groups and institutions try to impose on young Canadian Muslims and how in turn they contest and reconceptualize these ideas. Nagra conducted fifty in-depth interviews with young Muslim adults in Vancouver and Toronto and her analysis reveals how this group experienced national belonging and exclusion in light of the Muslim ‘other’, how they reconsidered their cultural and religious identity, and what their experiences tell us about contemporary Canadian citizenship. The rich and lively interviews in Securitized Citizens successfully capture the experiences and feelings of well-educated, second-generation, and young Canadian Muslims. Nagra acutely explores how racial discourses in a post–9/11 world have affected questions of race relations, religious identity, nationalism, white privilege, and multiculturalism. In Securitized Citizens, Baljit Nagra, develops a new critical analysis of the ideas dominant groups and institutions try to impose on young Canadian Muslims and how in turn they contest and reconceptualize these ideas.
Abstract: This dissertation examines the inner work of identity formation as it takes shape for minoritized, and often marginalized, Shia Ismaili Muslim adolescents. Through the use of psychoanalytic theory and qualitative research methods, including focus groups and individual interviews, the emotional world of adolescents is analyzed to foreground conflict, difficult feelings and intergenerational memories. Identity markers of faith, culture, race, and citizenship are explored through the psychoanalytic concepts of anxiety, loss, melancholia, guilt, and ideality. My analysis focuses on how social contexts of prejudice and stereotypes relate to inner experiences of isolation, loneliness, and feeling misunderstood. Focusing on the emotional dynamics of faith identity, the dissertation offers an account of the creative and at times defensive processes through which adolescents navigate relationships with teachers, parents, peers, media, and school in a Canadian context that meets, but also fails to meet, their efforts. While highly attuned to the ways Islamophobia operates in public discourse in Canada, the participants have difficulty acknowledging their distress, struggle to find hope and spaces of inclusion, and take on the weighty responsibility to educate others in an effort to reduce the hate projected onto them. The result is a painful split between their faith and their secular selves.
Abstract: The 9/11 attacks in the United States, the subsequent global “war on terror,” and the proliferation of domestic security policies in Western nations have had a profound impact on the lives of young Muslims, whose identities and experiences have been shaped within and against these conditions. The millennial generation of Muslim youth has come of age in these turbulent times, dealing with the aftermath and backlash associated with these events. Under Siege explores the lives of Canadian Muslim youth belonging to the 9/11 generation as they navigate these fraught times of global war and terror. While many studies address contemporary manifestations of Islamophobia and anti-Muslim racism, few have focused on the toll this takes on Muslim communities, especially among younger generations. Based on in-depth interviews with more than 130 young people, youth workers, and community leaders, Jasmin Zine’s ethnographic study unpacks the dynamics of Islamophobia as a system of oppression and examines its impact on Canadian Muslim youth. Covering topics such as citizenship, identity and belonging, securitization, radicalization, campus culture in an age of empire, and subaltern Muslim counterpublics and resistance, Under Siege provides a unique and comprehensive examination of the complex realities of Muslim youth in a post-9/11 world. Twenty years after the 9/11 attacks, Zine reveals how the global war on terror and heightened anti-Muslim racism have affected a generation of Canadians who were socialized into a world where their faith and identity are under siege.
Section 2. Coping With Islamophobia in USA
Abstract: Pargament's (1997) religious coping theory was used to examine the methods of coping with stressful interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. The large majority of participants reported experiencing at least one stressful interpersonal event after the 9/11 attacks related to being Muslim; the most common incidents were hearing anti-Muslim comments, undergoing special security checks in airports, facing discriminatory acts, and being verbally harassed. Participants used both religious (i.e., positive religious coping, negative religious coping) and nonreligious (i.e., reaching out, isolation) methods to deal with these stressful interpersonal events. Positive religious coping and reaching out were related to posttraumatic growth; negative religious coping was associated with depression; and isolation was tied to both depression and angry feelings. The large majority of participants did not view the negative interpersonal events they experienced after the 9/11 attacks as a sacred loss, but a significant percentage did consider these events as a desecration. Further, viewing these incidents as a desecration was tied to posttraumatic growth, but this link was partially mediated by positive coping methods.
Abstract: In this exploratory study, eight focus groups were conducted, utilizing 83 participants. A structured, but flexible, interview guided by trauma theory was designed to solicit perspectives on the impact of the September 11, 2001, attacks on the Arab American community in New York City. Participants identified several common areas of concern, including fear of hate crimes, anxiety about the future, threats to their safety, loss of community, isolation, and stigmatization. Barriers to services and current mental health needs were discussed. The results of this study may assist social workers and clinical psychologists in developing targeted mental health initiatives using community outreach strategies. This approach may enhance recovery and healing at the individual and community levels, particularly if services are provided by those who are culturally and linguistically competent and sensitive.
Muslim men and women’s perception of discrimination, hate crimes, and PTSD symptoms post 9/11
Wahiba Abu-Ras, Zulema Suarez
Abstract: This study examined the relationship between race-based stress (racial harassment and discrimination) and PTSD in a sample of 102 New York Muslim men and women post-9/11 while controlling for gender. Bivariate, univariate, and stepwise regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Results of the study show that “feeling less safe” after the events of 9/11 emerged as the only significant predictor of PTSD (F = 10.32; p < .05). Gender discrepancies indicated that men and women differed in symptom expression and reactions. Whereas men were more likely to experience racial harassment, women were more likely to express fear of being in public places. Potential explanations, study limitations and implications are suggested.
Abstract: Pargament's (1997) religious coping theory was used to examine the methods of coping with stressful interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. The large majority of participants reported experiencing at least one stressful interpersonal event after the 9/11 attacks related to being Muslim; the most common incidents were hearing anti-Muslim comments, undergoing special security checks in airports, facing discriminatory acts, and being verbally harassed. Participants used both religious (i.e., positive religious coping, negative religious coping) and nonreligious (i.e., reaching out, isolation) methods to deal with these stressful interpersonal events. Positive religious coping and reaching out were related to posttraumatic growth; negative religious coping was associated with depression; and isolation was tied to both depression and angry feelings. The large majority of participants did not view the negative interpersonal events they experienced after the 9/11 attacks as a sacred loss, but a significant percentage did consider these events as a desecration. Further, viewing these incidents as a desecration was tied to posttraumatic growth, but this link was partially mediated by positive coping methods.
Abstract: Pargament's (1997) religious coping theory was used to examine the methods of coping with stressful interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. The large majority of participants reported experiencing at least one stressful interpersonal event after the 9/11 attacks related to being Muslim; the most common incidents were hearing anti-Muslim comments, undergoing special security checks in airports, facing discriminatory acts, and being verbally harassed. Participants used both religious (i.e., positive religious coping, negative religious coping) and nonreligious (i.e., reaching out, isolation) methods to deal with these stressful interpersonal events. Positive religious coping and reaching out were related to posttraumatic growth; negative religious coping was associated with depression; and isolation was tied to both depression and angry feelings. The large majority of participants did not view the negative interpersonal events they experienced after the 9/11 attacks as a sacred loss, but a significant percentage did consider these events as a desecration. Further, viewing these incidents as a desecration was tied to posttraumatic growth, but this link was partially mediated by positive coping methods.
Abstract: Pargament's (1997) religious coping theory was used to examine the methods of coping with stressful interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. The large majority of participants reported experiencing at least one stressful interpersonal event after the 9/11 attacks related to being Muslim; the most common incidents were hearing anti-Muslim comments, undergoing special security checks in airports, facing discriminatory acts, and being verbally harassed. Participants used both religious (i.e., positive religious coping, negative religious coping) and nonreligious (i.e., reaching out, isolation) methods to deal with these stressful interpersonal events. Positive religious coping and reaching out were related to posttraumatic growth; negative religious coping was associated with depression; and isolation was tied to both depression and angry feelings. The large majority of participants did not view the negative interpersonal events they experienced after the 9/11 attacks as a sacred loss, but a significant percentage did consider these events as a desecration. Further, viewing these incidents as a desecration was tied to posttraumatic growth, but this link was partially mediated by positive coping methods.
Abstract: Pargament's (1997) religious coping theory was used to examine the methods of coping with stressful interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. The large majority of participants reported experiencing at least one stressful interpersonal event after the 9/11 attacks related to being Muslim; the most common incidents were hearing anti-Muslim comments, undergoing special security checks in airports, facing discriminatory acts, and being verbally harassed. Participants used both religious (i.e., positive religious coping, negative religious coping) and nonreligious (i.e., reaching out, isolation) methods to deal with these stressful interpersonal events. Positive religious coping and reaching out were related to posttraumatic growth; negative religious coping was associated with depression; and isolation was tied to both depression and angry feelings. The large majority of participants did not view the negative interpersonal events they experienced after the 9/11 attacks as a sacred loss, but a significant percentage did consider these events as a desecration. Further, viewing these incidents as a desecration was tied to posttraumatic growth, but this link was partially mediated by positive coping methods.
Abstract: Pargament's (1997) religious coping theory was used to examine the methods of coping with stressful interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. The large majority of participants reported experiencing at least one stressful interpersonal event after the 9/11 attacks related to being Muslim; the most common incidents were hearing anti-Muslim comments, undergoing special security checks in airports, facing discriminatory acts, and being verbally harassed. Participants used both religious (i.e., positive religious coping, negative religious coping) and nonreligious (i.e., reaching out, isolation) methods to deal with these stressful interpersonal events. Positive religious coping and reaching out were related to posttraumatic growth; negative religious coping was associated with depression; and isolation was tied to both depression and angry feelings. The large majority of participants did not view the negative interpersonal events they experienced after the 9/11 attacks as a sacred loss, but a significant percentage did consider these events as a desecration. Further, viewing these incidents as a desecration was tied to posttraumatic growth, but this link was partially mediated by positive coping methods.